Teacher Summary

Theoretical Basis

We have noticed many similarities in the people and objects with which we are familiar. However, if our language implies that there is identity or sameness between two people or between two objects, it fails to correspond to the world about us.

Resource Readings

“In this world ‘complete sameness’ between any two of anything has not yet been demonstrated, for in some respects objects and happenings differ from each other. And the closer to nature we are able to get, the more apparent does this structural fact become.

“When the fact of difference has been understood, we should be ready for another — that each item of our acquaintance, each object and happening will appear unique, differing in some details from every other one.” —Lee, Language Habits in Human Affairs, pp. 88, 89.

“... everything we can see, touch, that is to say, all lower order abstractions represent absolute individuals, different from everything else.” —Korzybski, Science and Sanity, p. 262.

“As we have said before, a fact occurs but once. This is a way of stating that no two things are exactly alike and no one thing remains exactly the same. It is a way of expressing the process character of reality. Thus, the structure of reality shows a practically infinite degree of differentiation.” —Johnson, People in Quandaries, pp. 114, 115.

“When you studied algebra you learned to deal with such symbols as x₁ x₂ and the like. The numbers were called subscripts, meaning that they were written under the x. These subscripts are indexes, or index numbers. They are not merely something thought up by some mathematician in a fit of whimsy. They are very useful to the mathematician whenever he wishes to remind you, and himself, that x is a variable term — that is to say, x can be used to represent any number whatever. Thus, at one time it may be used to represent 9, or at another time 118, etc. In other words, x₁ is not x₂.

“Now, after all, x is like any ordinary word. The word house, for example, is a variable term. It can be used to refer to my house, or to your house, or to any one of all the possible buildings one might want to talk about. And house₁, is not house₂....

“Other common forms of the index device are to be seen in the social security numbers, automobile license numbers, the elaborate system of numbers used in cataloguing books in public libraries, the numerals worn on the backs of football players — anyone can recall a great number of other examples....

“It is astonishing that we have applied this ingenious device to almost everything except our language. In general semantics we apply it to that, too. If we can say house₁, house₂, etc., we can say man₁, man₂, etc., or love₁, love₂, etc. We can use indexes with any word whatever.” —Ibid., pp. 211, 212.

Examples of Misevaluations in This Area

When people fail to recognize the fact of difference, we find misevaluations such as the following:

1. A visit to the dentist is avoided, even for a check up.

2. There is the assumption that an only child is spoiled.

3. There is a refusal to try new recreation or foods because of a former disappointment.

4. People are disliked who have the same name as or a resemblance to someone with whom there is an unpleasant association.

5. There is prejudice against a group because of a few experiences with others of the same group.

Attitudes and Habits We Desire Pupils to Develop

1. An awareness of the uniqueness of each thing that exists.

2. A preparedness for differences at any time.

3. A realization that failure to recognize difference leads to prejudice.

4. The habitual use of the index to make language fit the fact of difference.

Pupils who apply training in this area will display fewer prejudices in their everyday contacts.

Presentation to Pupils

LESSON 11

Theory

No two of anything have ever been found identical, that is, alike in all respects.

Example.—Challenge the pupils to produce examples of complete identity. The pupils will probably list identical twins, or some manufactured articles that appear alike to them. Refrain from pointing out differences in these examples and appear to be considering them so that the pupils will take over the task of finding differences. The pupils usually refer to their background readings in science to produce examples. Many class periods are needed for this pupil-centered discussion; in fact, in each class we have had a few pupils who remained hopeful of finding an example that would convince the class that there were instances of identity. They continued the search and reported examples months later. We never gave a verdict; we just kept the discussion open.

Experiments

1. At the beginning of the second or third class period on this lesson, without mentioning the theory, pretend to read a message from the office asking you to make a poster or calendar picture. Ask the pupils to help in planning the picture you are to make. Tell them that you want a realistic picture that will be appealing to young people their age — a picture of a cowboy. Then say that you will ask a series of questions about the cowboy, questions that you want them to answer quickly and in unison:

What is he riding?

Is he tall or short?

What is he wearing on his hip?

Has he one or two guns?

Are his legs straight or bowed?

What is tied around his neck?

Is his hat small or large?

Is his complexion light or tanned?

Does he speak rapidly or does he drawl?

What is on the heel of his boots?

Accept each one-word answer as it is snapped out, and thank the class for its help. Tell them that you know how to make the picture now, but that you are curious about where they have seen this cowboy that they all seem to know so well. Have they ever seen him in the neighborhood or going down the street? If not, how are they so sure about him? The pupils usually answer that movies or television have furnished their ideas. Ask whether they have ever seen any of the cowboys that come in to the stockyards with shipments of cattle. If any of the pupils have, or have seen cowboys at work when they visited ranches in the West, ask whether the real-life cowboy corresponded to their picture; check the details with the pupils.

2. Ask the pupils whether they think that they can give another rapid description, this time of a butler:

Is he American or English?

Is he old or young?

Does he wear jeans or striped trousers?

Is he tall or short?

Does he look haughty or friendly?

One of our classes snapped out the answers to the questions about a butler, and then we discovered that only one little girl had ever seen or known a butler. We asked her to check our picture of an elderly, tall, haughty English butler. She said her aunt lived in California and had a butler, but he was a friendly young man who wore jeans and a sport shirt and was just as American as her family.

3. The class may develop a stereotype of a boy going fishing:

Does he wear shoes or is he barefoot?

What is over his shoulder?

What is walking beside him?

What is on the back of his head?

What is he carrying in his hand?

What kind of trousers is he wearing?

Is his skin clear or freckled?

Ask whether this boy has been seen in the neighborhood, perhaps walking down the street to go fishing. Point out that they have had fun developing what is called a stereotype and that these cases are amusing, but that we are likely to have difficulties if we make a habit of thinking in a stereotyped fashion about people we do not know. We are ignoring differences in people when we think about capitalists, or adults, or Frenchmen, or Indians, or policemen, or anyone in this way.

4. “There is a useful device for showing that we are aware of differences; it is called the Index. We use indexes everyday to note differences — numbered seats in the assembly hall, room numbers, telephone numbers, house numbers, etc. We have used the indexes in the back of our books to find certain selections that we want; perhaps we can use an index to find the differences in people or things. It should help us to remember that person₁ is not person₂ or person₃. You know that teen-ager₁ is different from teen-ager₂, but some older people ignore the differences and speak merely of teen-agers. Can you see how the use of the index would help to prevent prejudice?”

“Let’s use the index for teen-ager. What teen-ager do we mean?”

“Does it help your thinking to index?”

“Now let’s use the index for one person with the name of George. There are a lot of boys with the name of George, and sometimes we forget to say which George we are talking about. Which George do we mean?”

“If we are talking about George, does it make a difference in our talking if we index?”

“How does using the index for teen-ager and George affect your thinking? Does using the index help you to see differences in people?”

Evidence

1. “What school subjects contain a need for knowing how to index?”

Geography	— people, countries
History	—causes of wars, civilization
Spelling	— rules and exceptions
Mathematics	—kinds of problems
Reading	—many different kinds of reading
Careers	—many different choices of occupations
Art	—many different media for expression

2. “Can you see a need for using the index on the playground?” (Games, playground equipment, leaders, etc.)

Conclusion

We should speak and act as if there were differences as well as similarities in people, objects, and events.

Applications

1. “Do we have a stereotyped picture of the typical American family, the ideal husband or wife, a model home? Can we point out identical life situations or people, or do they differ in some respects? Are we likely to be disappointed if we expect life to correspond to our movie or television pictures?”

2. “List as many careers as you can that are based on the ability to discern differences.” (Teataster, piano tuner, proofreader, art dealer, diagnostician, etc.)

3. “If we agree that things and people are different, should we spend so much time trying to be like others?” (Movie stars, dress fads, speech, etc.)

4. “Why is the Primary Mental Abilities test a better picture of your abilities than the old I.Q.?”

5. “Discuss the class treatment of teacher substitutes, applying what we have learned about differences.”

6. “Do you ever start an explanation for some misunderstanding of yours with the words, ‘I just took it for granted that ...’?” Let the class give examples of taking something for granted and ignoring the differences in situations. Discuss these examples.

7. “Are you justified in feeling annoyed when parents or teachers compare you with your sister or brother? Should they expect many differences?”

8. “Are you unfair in comparing one teacher with another and in demanding no differences from your favorite?”

QUESTION

“Does this lesson mean that we look for differences in people and events and ignore the likeness?”

No. When we are learning about people and events, it is necessary to group them for study, but we must remember that the differences are there.